Additional sources of captive information are periodic industry-focused
magazine articles and occasional pieces that appear in the likes
of Forbes and
Fortune magazines, along with
the odd newspaper article. These are often interesting to read,
but they are almost always written from a particular point of view
and, because of time and space limitations, rarely if ever present
a truly balanced perspective. Of course, IRMI's
Risk Financing manual is a
great source of captive information, as are the two books on captives
published by IRMI:
Captive Practices and Procedures,
2nd Edition, and
Captives and the Management of Risk,
2nd Edition.
You may recall that, a few years ago, a financial reporter for
the New York Times wrote what
was intended to be an expose of captives' presumed nefarious financial
and tax doings. The piece was ultimately discredited, but its author
clearly had an agenda. Alas, when the fact that the author's employer,
the Times, confirmed that
it in fact owned a captive, her byline was, understandably, seldom
seen thereafter.
There is nothing inherently wrong with these types of articles,
and no one can expect companies to advertise the bad as well as
the good aspects of their products and services, and general media
articles must have an angle, or no one would read them.
The Basics
So, let's begin with the basics. Regardless of what you may have
learned from the above-mentioned sources, a captive is first and
foremost an insurance company. The term "captive" denotes insurance
company status. Insurance company status means that the captive
employs insurance accounting. If the structure cannot qualify for
insurance accounting, it must use deposit accounting, which renders
it something other than a captive insurance company.
Insurance accounting allows the captive to deduct its loss reserves
from its federal income taxes; taxes are paid on earnings, and earnings
are recognized once losses for a particular period of time (usually
a year) are no longer expected to occur or become reported.
Moreover, the captive's contracts (insurance policies) must conform
to Financial Accounting Standard (FAS) 113. FAS 113 requires that
the insurance contract must provide coverage for a reasonable chance
of a significant loss.
Contrary to what you may read, a captive is not a tax shelter,
nor is it a bank. It can be used, however, as an estate-planning
tool (more on this later). To qualify to use insurance accounting,
every captive must meet the following principles first:
- Establish and document non-tax business objectives
and purpose
- Experience insurance losses
- No parental guarantees to bail out the captive
- Provide adequate capitalization
- Avoid substantial loan-backs
- Engage professional captive management
- Comply with local insurance regulations and
formalities
- Follow conventional investment strategies
- Use risk-transferring insurance contracts per
FAS 113
- Make sure risk sharing is sufficient, based
on Internal Revenue Service (IRS) safe harbors
- Transact business at "arm's length" using
actuarial-based pricing
- Maintain the captive's business, books, and records
separate from the parent company and comparable
to other insurers
- The premium cannot match the maximum limit of
liability.
831(b)Captives
The majority of the companies selling captives—not feasibility
studies, just captives—sell what is known as the 831(b) captive.
They'll also assist in the creation of standard captives, but their
primary stock-in-trade is the 831(b).
This captive's name is derived from the section of the Internal
Revenue Code (IRC) that enables their use. Many of these 831(b)
companies make little pretense of providing objective risk management
advice; their advice centers on estate planning, which is the primary
purpose of the 831(b) captive. The primary benefits of the 831(b)
captive are that (1) only investment income is subject to US federal
income taxation—income from premiums is tax free—and (2) 831(b)
captives are off balance sheet.
Unfortunately, many of these firms have a less than comprehensive
grasp on the rules to which all captives must adhere to be considered
bona fide insurers. Others conflate certain aspects of the 831(b)
captive with captives in general, which, of course, causes confusion
and adds to the amount of misinformation available to prospective
captive owners.
Examples
Because there is so much blatant misinformation on the Internet,
it was hard to pick out the best examples for this article, but
I think you'll find the following examples entertaining if not disconcerting.
Example 1
An article appearing in a respected technical journal on taxation
and accounting lists the following as three of the benefits of captives:
- "Asset protection from the claims of business
and personal creditors"
- "Opportunity to accumulate wealth in a tax-favored
vehicle"
- "Distributions to captive owners at favorable
income tax rates"
This article is ostensibly devoted to explaining the benefits
of captive insurance companies. The problem is that none of the
three so-called benefits applies to the vast majority of captive
insurers. They apply ONLY to the 831(b) captive, which as noted
above, is used as an estate-planning vehicle.
The vast majority of captives (non-831(b) captives) are
on balance sheet risk financing vehicles.
Their tax filings are consolidated up with their parents' filings,
so they provide no asset protection from creditors. Likewise, the
vast majority of captives are not "tax favored," thanks to the 1986
tax law changes.
The fact that the article is actually devoted to only 831(b)
captives is never revealed; the term 831(b) is not even mentioned
until page 3 of the 6-page article.
Example 2
A captive promoter advertises itself as offering a "new service"
to help clients "take advantage of captive structures and domiciles
to meet their individual risk management needs."
It is clear that this company has almost no institutional knowledge
of captives. Its litany of captive benefits is a recitation of the
generic, nonspecific "benefits" cited hundreds of times across the
Internet and elsewhere. It is obvious to me that this firm is, like
many others, describing the 831(b) captive, but in this case, the
term is not even utilized.
This firm's captive "sin" is tax related. This is ironic as,
according to the firm's marketing literature, it is the leading
tax services firm in North America! Its sales material on captives
states that annual insurance premiums (paid to a captive from its
parent) are tax deductible as ordinary and reasonable expenses pursuant
to IRC Section 162(a). This statement is untrue on its face.
IRC Section 162(a) does indeed provide guidance as to tax-deductible
business expenses. However, given the specialized rules (for captives)
promulgated by the IRS over the past couple of decades, it is obvious
that this firm's lack of understanding of captives is not only annoying;
it's potentially dangerous. The IRS has issued a raft of revenue
rulings that address the tax status of captives and their parents
in a wide variety of circumstances.
The central theme of many of these revenue rulings is the notion
of what constitutes risk distribution (risk sharing). These rules
are applicable to every captive, including the 831(b) variety. Briefly,
a single-parent captive (such as an 831(b) captive) must have at
least 50 percent unrelated business in order to qualify as a bona
fide insurer. This means that only about half of the captive's total
annual premiums can come from the captive parent.
To add insult to injury, in the same marketing piece, this firm
says that safe harbor revenue rulings provide the tax benefits.
Yes, they do indeed, but only if the
prospective captive owner can qualify under them! This firm's
message is that any company that pays taxes is automatically qualified
to form a captive. Bait and switch?
This firm's marketing literature also says that a captive's funds
can be immediately invested in just about anything the owner wants—real
estate, stocks, bonds, mutual funds, etc. Nothing could be further
from the truth. Some captive domiciles, such as Bermuda, have specific
investment guidelines designed to require the captive to hold primarily
liquid investments. In Bermuda, 75 percent of investments must be
considered "relevant," another way to say liquid.
Some onshore domiciles, such as Vermont, have no specific investment
guidelines for single-parent captives, but I guarantee that the
regulator (and your actuaries) will seriously discourage illiquid
investments such as real estate and equities. Bonds are the preferred
captive investments.
Example 3
Another firm proclaiming captive expertise provides an exhibit
that ostensibly shows captive tax benefits over 10 years. If you'll
recall, the "first principle"—establish
and document nontax business objectives and purpose—doesn't
appear to be a priority with this firm. The exhibit compares after-tax
income with and without an 831(b) captive.
On its face, this exhibit shows that, with a captive, if the
parent company pays about $10 million into its little captive over
10 years, it earns about $5 million over the no-captive scenario.
Unfortunately, the exhibit fails to include a rather important element—captive
losses. Without losses, captives are nothing more than tax-advantaged
pools of funds, upon which the IRS frowns. This omission effectively
renders the exhibit worthless.
Conclusion
Unfortunately, the snake oil trade is alive and well on the Internet.
How does one guard against such shenanigans? The only effective
way to do so is to talk to qualified professionals (consultants,
attorneys, etc.) who have nothing to sell but advice and expertise.